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To better understand the effects of crying in humans, it is also important to consider the animal counterparts to human crying (in the domain of communication), as well as other animal behaviors that might serve stress-reducing functions. In all mammals and most birds, offspring react with (25)_____ calls or distress calls to being removed from the parents. There can be little doubt that this is the phylogenetic basis of the acoustical crying of human infants. This very basic form of crying is meant to undo the separation from the parents and it is not likely to have any direct soothing function. Rather, this behavior seems to be associated with a state of increased arousal and result in soothing because of the comfort and support it elicited, that is, because it has (26)_____ its inter-individual function. In animals, distress calls are mainly (27)_____ by young offspring, and they are never accompanied by the production of tears. (28)_____ , candidates for the mechanisms that might contribute to reduction of distress in non-human animals (and in humans as well) can be found in displacement behaviors and stereotypes, (29)_____ are proposed to serve communicative functions as well
