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We need to cut down on the emission of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere.

 

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Zoos used to be primarily a place for people to see wild animals they had never seen.  Now, however, zoos serve a new purpose – to be captive-breeding programs for endangered animals. There are less than a hundred Sumatran rhinos worldwide, and three were born in Cincinnati Zoo. When old enough, one of the males was sent to Way Kamabas National Park in Sumatra and this helped to start the process of re-populating his species in the wild and saving it from the extinction.  Other zoos have started captive-breeding programs as well. Zoos have saved the Arabian onyx, the black-footed ferret, the red wolf, the Guam rail, and the California condor. But the cost of the programs for saving the threatened animals is not cheap. The condor program alone costs up to $2 million a year. While it is mostly large-city zoos involved in captive breeding, smaller zoos do their part. The Miller Park Zoo in Bloomington, Illinois, is working on breeding the endangered, and small. Mount Graham red squirrel.  Zoos have always been involved in animal conservation to some degree, but the question of which animals to save is a big one. Endangered animals may not be the most exciting to see in a zoo, and to di conservation work the zoos must survive financially. Space is a problem as well. A zoo might be able to save a small number of large animals or a large number of small ones. Currently, the most threatened group of animals is amphibians. Zoos realize that visitors may not want to see frogs, salamanders, or other small animals and may only pay to see rhinos, lions, and tigers. Some scientists believe zoos should be less tourist attractions and more conservation sanctuaries. Thus, although zoos continue to do good work, they still confront tricky questions. There are a limited number of animals that can be cared for in zoos, and that means many species on the edge of extinction may not survive. The Sumatran orangutan and a thousand other threatened species have not made it into a captive-breeding program, but the species will continue to exist. How? In the Frozen Zoo. Cells from these animals are stored in the San Diego Zoo Institute for Conservation Research in liquid nitrogen. Only one animal in the Frozen Zoo is presently extinct, but many others are at dire risk. In the Frozen Zoo, however, the cells of animals will be preserved for study through their genetic material.
8. What is the purpose of the Frozen Zoo?

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You must drive more slowly in built up areas ............... you drive in the city, it is ............... that you will have an accident.

Mark the letter A, B, C, or D on your answer sheet to indicate the undelined part that needs correction in each of the following questions:
Ever since humans have inhabited the earth, they have made use of various forms of communication. Generally, this expression of thoughts and feelings has been in the form of oral speech. When there is a language barrier, communication is accomplished through sign language in which motions stand for letters, words, and ideas. Tourists, the deaf, and the mute have had to resort to this form of expression. Many of these symbols of whole words are very picturesque and exact and can be used internationally, spelling, however, cannot.
Body language transmits ideas or thoughts by certain actions, either intentionally or unintentionally. A wink can be a way of flirting or indicating that the party is only joking. A nod signifies approval, while shaking the head indicates a negative reaction.
Other forms of nonlinguistic language can be found in Braille (a system of raised dots read with the fingertips), signal flags, Morse code, and smoke signals. Road maps and picture signs also guide, warm, and instruct people. While verbalization is most common form of language, other systems and techniques also express human thoughts and feelings.

All of the following statements are true EXCEPT    .

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The term “generation gap” may have been coined not long ago but the problem itself is as old as the hills. All sorts of conflicts and misunderstanding between younger and older generations occur in probably every family. Adults complain about arrogance and insensitivity of young people whereas the latter claim that their parents have no idea about what they are going through. There seems to be no perfect solution to this problem as the young and the old find it difficult, if not impossible, to communicate and accept opposite views. The fact that teenagers develop different values from those held by their parents leads to numerous conflicts. There are many reasons why the problem of generation gap arises. First of all, the period of adolescence is difficult. Teenagers are not children any longer, but they are no adults yet. They search for a sense of identity and crave independence. On the other hand, they depend on their parents financially and still need their parent consent when they want to go out, go for holidays, buy something expensive, invite friends home, etc. Very often teenagers treat their parents like enemies especially when they are not permitted to do one thing or another. Obviously, it is understandable when parents insist a teenager returns home before midnight. They have a wide knowledge of the world and all kinds of risks involved – reckless youngsters see no danger in walking alone in the middle of the night or getting a lift from a stranger who might be a serial killer. When children grow up and start their own families they are able to admit that their parents were usually right, although a bit overprotective at times  However, we must remember that adolescence is the period of making important decisions. Sixteen or seventeen-year-olds want to choose their career path or at least develop their talents, which in turn will enable them to decide upon a job later on. Secondly, it is in their late teens when they form their lifelong friendships, go for their first dates, analyze what qualities they will look for in their future partners. Unfortunately, a lot of parents do not want to accept the fact that their child is growing up and has the sole right to choose who she or he wants to become in the future. Such mothers and fathers often have their own idea what their child’s life should be. To my mind, this kind of behavior is really harmful and it can result in a very serious family conflict. Every now and then we meet forty-year-old people who accuse their parents of making them study the subject they hated or marrying the person they never loved. The generation gap problem, which usually disappears a few years later, in such families turns into an emotional wound which might never heal and the feeling of a wasted life on both parts. To sum up, although conflicts between teenagers and their parents are unavoidable, they definitely do not have to lead to an open war. My advice to parents is to try and treat teenagers as their equal partners and to accept their ideas. Teenagers should respect their mothers and fathers more, and be always ready to discuss serious problems with them. All in all, who else loves them more than their parents do?  
7. According to paragraph 4, which of the following is NOT mentioned as the thing teenagers do during their adolescence?

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The World Health Organization on Wednesday declared the rapidly spreading  coronavirus outbreak a pandemic. Director-General Tedros Adhanom Ghebreyesus said that “We expect to see the number of cases, the number of deaths, and the number of affected countries climb even higher.”  WHO officials had said earlier they were hesitant to call the outbreak a pandemic in case it led governments and individuals to give up the fight. On Wednesday, they stressed that fundamental public health interventions can still limit the spread of the virus and drive down cases even where it was transmitting widely, as the work of authorities and communities in China, Singapore, and South Korea has shown.  The virus, which probably originated in bats but passed to people via an as yet unrecognized intermediary animal species, is believed to have started infecting people in Wuhan, China, in late November or early December. Since then the virus has raced around the globe. South Korea, which has reported nearly 8,000 cases, also appears poised to bring its outbreak under control with aggressive measures and widespread testing. But other countries have struggled to follow the leads of China and South Korea — a reality that has frustrated WHO officials who have exhorted the world to do everything possible to end transmission of the virus. Tedros used the fact that 90% of the cumulative cases have been reported in just four countries as evidence that the rest of the world still had time to prevent an explosion of cases with action.  WHO officials also stressed that countries should be implementing a strategic combination two types of measures. One involves trying to detect and stop known chains of transmission by isolating cases and following and potentially quarantining their contacts. The other involves community-level steps like social distancing and comes into play when the virus is spreading more broadly and transmission chains can’t be tracked. Mike Ryan, the head of the WHO’s emergency program, said that the public health interventions might not have straightforward effect, but to slow the spread of the virus. People with severe cases can require long periods of critical care and strain the resources of hospitals. He said he was worried about “the case load, the demand on the health workers, the dangers that come with fatigue, and potentially shortages of personal protective equipment.”
5. The word “poised” in paragraph 3 is closest in meaning to _______

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The past fifty years or so have seen the gradual disappearing of animals from this earth, fishes from the sea, trees and plants from the land. Many factors result in this unpleasant phenomenon. Among them, hunting is the main factor that endangers wildlife. Some people kill wildlife for sport. They take pleasure in collecting heads and hides. Yet others specialize in commercial hunting like killing whales. Apart from this, the rapidly growing human population threatens wildlife on land, too. Towns expand and roads have to be built, so forests are burnt and trees are chopped down. It seems that man needs every inch of land within his reach, so he moves on to the natural habitat of wildlife. Tigers, lions and leopards slowly die off without the food and shelter that the forests provide. In addition, rapid urbanization means industrial expansion. Very often, poisonous chemicals, industrial wastes and oil are dumped into the rivers and seas. Fish and birds are threatened. Man depends greatly on animals for survival. He needs their flesh, hides and furs. Thus, man cannot do without wildlife; or he himself would become extinct. The public should be made aware that it would be better to shoot the animals with a camera than with a gun. In this way, they can preserve and help wildlife to continue living rather than to remove all signs of it. Man must learn to farm the sea as he does the land. He should regulate the amount and the frequency of his catch. He should allow fish to breed and multiply before netting them. Man also needs to build forest reserves, and to pass laws prohibiting the killing of animals, especially those that are already rare. To retain the present animal kingdom, the least that man can do is to clean the seas and rivers and to prevent pollution. The cycle of nature is such that it forms a vicious circle. The insecticides and pesticides that we spray on crops can kill the birds and animals that feed on them. When man eats these poisoned animals, he himself can die. We must therefore test the chemicals to be used before they are sprayed or it might mean the death of man!
5. The growing human population threatens wildlife because____________

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Bagpipe music played, wreaths were sent and Amazing Grace was sung. A  black shroud was laid upon a makeshift urn. It was a funeral, of course, for which such displays of respect are common. But in this case, the people living in a small Nova Scotia community had gathered to pay their respects not to a person who had died, but to a post office.  The grief might have been hard for outsiders to understand, but not for those living in Head of St. Margaret’s Bay, N.S., where the post office run by Verna Dunlop was a big part of their small, tight-knit community. The post office, which had been located in the back of Dunlop’s home, was not just a utilitarian service kiosk where residents had to go to pick up their mail. According to locals, it was also a community hub where people gathered to catch up on the town gossip, or to enjoy a cup of the coffee the postmaster had been brewing for them. “It’s really the centre of the village,” said one woman, explaining what the post office meant to the people living there.  There had been a post office located in Head of St. Margaret’s Bay since before Confederation. And local residents spent months fighting to keep the one they had. But Canada Post made the decision to close it, as it was losing money. It was replacing the post office with sets of newly installed super mailboxes.  Many people in town weren’t convinced the coming changes were for the better. “We do not want those super mailboxes. We want to have a community life,” he said. At the mock funeral, Dunlop choked up as she said she hoped “this is going to stop,” alluding to the fact that it wasn’t just Head of St. Margaret’s Bay that was losing its post office. “We hope that the way of life that we’re used to we can keep,” she added. Canada Post had closed 40 such rural post offices that year and had long-term plans to close more than 5,000 of them across the country. “Just as Verna Dunlop’s post office came to symbolize for these people the best qualities of rural life, so does its passing remind them of the steady erosion of that way of life,” said Evans.
3. The word “makeshift” in paragraph 1 is closest in meaning to _______

Each sentence has a mistake. Find it by chosing A B C or D

 Pay particular attentive  to the warnings printed on the label

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During the past half-century, our species has embarked on a remarkable social  experiment. For the first time in human history, great numbers of people – at all ages, in all places, of every political persuasion – have begun settling down as singletons. Until the second half of the last century, most of us married young and parted only at death. If death came early, we remarried quickly; if late, we moved in with family, or they with us. Now we marry later. We divorce, and stay single for years or decades.  The rise of living alone has produced significant social benefits, too. Young and middle-aged solos have helped to revitalise cities, because they are more likely to spend money, socialise and participate in public life. Contemporary solo dwellers in the US are primarily women: about 18 million, compared with 14 million men. The majority, more than 16 million, are middle-aged adults between the ages of 35 and 64. The elderly account for about 11 million of the total. Young adults between 18 and 34 number increased more than 5 million, compared with 500,000 in 1950, making them the fastest-growing segment of the solo-dwelling population.  Despite fears that living alone may be environmentally unsustainable, solos tend to live in apartments rather than in big houses, and in relatively green cities rather than in cardependent suburbs. There’s good reason to believe that people who live alone in cities consume less energy than if they coupled up and decamped to pursue a single-family home.
5.  The word “decamped” in paragraph 3 means _______________

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Books have been around for thousands of years. When ancient civilizations first started developing writing systems, they would write on just about anything, from stone to tree bark. Ancient Egyptians were the first to use paper-like materials, called “papyrus”, which they made by pounding flat the woven stems of the papyrus plant. It was not long before the ancient Egyptians began gluing together papyrus sheets to form scrolls, which were the first steps toward books as you know. The birthplace of bookbinding is considered to be India in the 2nd century B.C., where Hindi scribes would bind palm leaves that were etched with religious texts between two wooden boards using twine. The technique became popular in the Middle East and Eastern Asia, and spread to the Romans by the 2nd century A.D. In the mid-15th century, German Johannes Gutenberg invented the first mechanical printing press. His invention was revolutionary because it enabled mass production of booksfor the first time. Before the printing press, a few pages per day could be produced by handcopying. Afterward, printing presses could produce as many as 3,600 pages per day. Today, modern publishers take advantage of incredible advances in technology to produce books in many sizes and shapes very quickly. Although there are many types of processes and machines available, most processes involve similar steps. Printers print the text of a book on large sheets of paper, sometimes as large as a newspaper page. Working with large volumes of paper allows printers to lower costs and produce books more efficiently.The large sheets are then cut into smaller pages that are still about twice the size of a finished book. The smaller pages are then divided into small groups, folded in half, and sewn together. Lastly, the folded and sewn pages are cut down to their finished size and glued to the spine of the final book’s cover. Depending on the quality of the book, additional finishing touches may be added, such as blank pages at the front and back of the book or special tape around the edges of the cover to increase durability. Although printed books may never go away completely, today’s readers will most certainly soon become more familiar with e-books. “E-book” refers to an electronic book, which is simply the text of a book displayed electronically, either via the Internet, a CD-ROM, a tablet, an e-book reader, or even a mobile phone. As electronic devices, such as tablets and mobile phones, become more commonplace, e-books are expected to become more and more popular. One of the benefits of e-books is that they save paper, which helps the environment by reducing the demand for trees  
7. The word “which” in paragraph 6 refers to ______

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Spend just a minute watching the world population counter tick up on Worldometers and you’ll see just how quickly we’re swelling in numbers. The current figure stands at around 7.7 billion, and this is projected to become 9.8 billion by 2050, according to the UN. More people means more carbon footprints - more cars, waste and emissions, more houses and infrastructure to be constructed using the world’s limited resources, more mouths to be fed using more water and energy in food production. Governments recognise the severity of the situation and have mostly come together over global policies like the UN’s Paris Agreement, to limit carbon emissions and their impact on climate change. In addition, new technologies are being developed to make our use of resources more efficient. As for controlling population growth, the education of women is one key factor. Research shows the higher level to which a woman is educated, the fewer children she is likely to have. In Ghana, for example, women who have been to high school, have a fertility rate of between two and three children, compared with six for those who have no education. This could be for several reasons including learning about desired family size and understanding child health better. This means that the mother is more confident her children will survive. She is also likely to hold more sway within the family, arguing for fewer children if that is what she wants.  There is also plenty that individuals can do to reduce their personal footprint. Earth Overshoot Day is defined as the day when humanity has used up nature’s resource budget for the year. The Global Footprint Network calculates that moving Earth Overshoot day back by five days every year would mean that, by 2050, we’d be using the resources of less than one planet. Just eating 50% less meat and replacing it with vegetarian alternatives could save the planet five days. As David Attenborough says, if we want to save Earth, we can no longer afford to keep eating meat: “We are omnivores, so biologically, if you could have a biological morality, you can say, yes we evolved to eat pretty well everything. But now we’ve got to a stage in our own social evolution in which that is no longer practical.” Sir David says he himself now eats less meat and is bolstered by the knowledge that it’s helping the planet.  
5. The word “footprint” in paragraph 4 is closest in meaning to _______

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Most of the roughly 1,400 active volcanoes around the world, including many in the  United States, do not have on-site observatories. Lacking ground-level data, scientists are turning to satellites to keep tabs on volcanoes from space. Now using artificial intelligence, scientists have created a new satellite-based method of detecting warning signs of when a volcano is likely to erupt.  Every time one of the satellites passes over a given volcano, it can capture an InSAR image of the volcano from which ground movement away from or toward the satellite can be calculated.  InSAR can often pick up the ominous expansion of the ground that occurs when magma moves within a volcano’s plumbing, but it is difficult to continuously monitor the huge number of images produced by the latest generation of SAR-equipped satellites. In addition, some volcanoes exhibit long-lasting deformation that poses no immediate threat, and new images must be compared with older ones to determine whether a deformation at a volcano is a warning sign or just business as usual. To solve these issues, the researchers turned to machine learning, a form of artificial intelligence that can glean subtle patterns in vast quantities of data. They developed an algorithm that can rapidly analyze InSAR data, compare current deformation to past activity, and automatically create an alert when a volcano’s unrest may be cause for concern.  To test the algorithm’s viability, the team applied it to real data from the period leading up to the 2018 eruption of Sierra Negra, a volcano in the Galápagos Islands. The algorithm worked, flagging an increase in the ground’s inflation that began about a year before the eruption. Had the method been available at the time, the team writes, it would have accurately alerted researchers that Sierra Negra was likely to erupt.
1. Which best serves as the title for the passage?

Each sentence has a mistake. Find it by chosing A B C or D 

 The beautiful of Cyprus, with its  pine-covered mountains, sandy beaches, historical monuments, and picturesque villages, is legendary

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Seniors in China are still highly likely to believe rumors and pseudoscience, according to reports. In recent years, China has seen more scientists and science communicators using digital platforms to combat pseudoscience, which is classified as rumors, statements, beliefs, ideas or practices that are stated as fact, but are often fabricated and scientifically untested. Despite that, many young Chinese have experienced difficulties when trying to pass on that message to older people. For example, last year, Dingxiang Doctor, a digital platform that debunks medical rumors online, released 101 articles that disproved common, inaccurate claims. However, many netizens said that when they forwarded the articles to family chat groups, they were questioned, scolded and even removed from the group by older family members. An online survey last year by Tencent, one of China’s biggest online businesses, indicated that nearly 40 percent of middle-aged and senior people had experienced online fraud, mostly related to healthcare products. Yun Wuxin, a food engineering expert who has popularized food science for more than 10 years, believes that, in general, members of the older generation lacked training in logical or critical thinking when they were young, so they have an exaggerated belief in personal experience, tradition or superstition. He said young people, especially today’s younger generation, have received better training and tend to hold skeptical or critical attitudes toward convention. He added that new media that popularize science in fresh, innovative ways － such as short videos, video blogs and animations － are very effective with young people. However, traditional methods, including television, community visits by scientists, neighborhood exhibitions and science columns in newspapers, are very important for middle-aged and elderly people who really need to understand science  
1. Which best serves as the title for the passage?

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In all the debate about conservation of natural landscapes, we must not forget that the 19th century also saw the development of interest in the cultural past. Although archaeology was around 100 years old at this point, at least in the Old World, it was largely an exercise in treasure hunting - digging up the treasures of the past as curiosities for museums or for the private collections of those who funded the dig. Changes in attitudes and law throughout the 19th century meant that monuments and artefacts were becoming part of the study of the past, no longer merely trinkets and curiosities, but indicators of a culture’s development and identity. Modern archaeology would not arrive until the 20th century and the concept of an archaeological landscape is younger still. The first laws to protect and conserve cultural heritage came into place in the late 19th and early 20th centuries in the developed countries. In the US, the first such law was the Antiquities Act in 1906 which gave the office of president the power to set aside areas of land as protected cultural assets, known as “National Monuments”. This law was in place until 1979 when it was replaced with the Archaeological Resources Protection Act but several other laws came into place before then that  required archaeologists to label and give proper contexts to monuments and artefacts. There was also a global movement to protect by law and provide resources and funds for monuments that were nationally important, but also those deemed significant to human civilization as a whole. Founded in 1945, has many responsibilities, one of the most important as far as archaeological conservation is concerned is the World Heritage List. The list began in 1975 as a recognition of globally important sites. The first 12 added on that first day included: L’Anse Aux Meadows in Canada, The Galapagos Islands, Quito in Ecuador, Krakow, and Mesa Verde National Park in the US. Today, there are over 1,000 cultural monuments and natural landscapes on this list. In the 21st century, it is common for countries to have laws in place to protect monuments, sites, and landscapes of cultural or historical importance and governmentestablished charities or government departments assigned to their management, upkeep or conservation. The threats to them and their conservation go beyond the issues of the 19th century (plunder and theft)
7. The word “plunder” in paragraph 4 is closest in meaning to _______

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An astronaut living in space begins a day in much the same way as he would on Earth.  The astronaut is able to brush his teeth and use the toilet in space. It is, however, rather challenging as the water droplets will (1) _________ around. The astronaut will also have to make to do with sponge baths.  There is a special plan for the astronaut on (2) _______ a spaceship which includes beverages and food items. The astronaut is allowed to have a maximum of three main meals a day. The meal varies each day until the sixth day. On that day, the menu is (3) _______ and the astronaut eats the meals he had on the first day. The food that is brought on a shuttle mission can be dehydrated, in natural (4) _________ for fresh. Sometimes, they are kept in thermostabilized cans or sealed pouches. It takes only thirty minutes to cook a delicious meal for a (5) ____________ of up to seven people on a space mission. However, astronauts have to eat slowly and carefully or the food will float away.

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Most of the roughly 1,400 active volcanoes around the world, including many in the  United States, do not have on-site observatories. Lacking ground-level data, scientists are turning to satellites to keep tabs on volcanoes from space. Now using artificial intelligence, scientists have created a new satellite-based method of detecting warning signs of when a volcano is likely to erupt.  Every time one of the satellites passes over a given volcano, it can capture an InSAR image of the volcano from which ground movement away from or toward the satellite can be calculated.  InSAR can often pick up the ominous expansion of the ground that occurs when magma moves within a volcano’s plumbing, but it is difficult to continuously monitor the huge number of images produced by the latest generation of SAR-equipped satellites. In addition, some volcanoes exhibit long-lasting deformation that poses no immediate threat, and new images must be compared with older ones to determine whether a deformation at a volcano is a warning sign or just business as usual. To solve these issues, the researchers turned to machine learning, a form of artificial intelligence that can glean subtle patterns in vast quantities of data. They developed an algorithm that can rapidly analyze InSAR data, compare current deformation to past activity, and automatically create an alert when a volcano’s unrest may be cause for concern.  To test the algorithm’s viability, the team applied it to real data from the period leading up to the 2018 eruption of Sierra Negra, a volcano in the Galápagos Islands. The algorithm worked, flagging an increase in the ground’s inflation that began about a year before the eruption. Had the method been available at the time, the team writes, it would have accurately alerted researchers that Sierra Negra was likely to erupt.
5. According to paragraph 4, what is correct about the Sierra Negra disaster?

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Advances in technology have generated revolutionary applications that could change the face of education as we know it today. Online learning, also known as electronic learning, may (33)......the future of education thanks to recent developments in the Internet and multimedia technologies.It is anticipated that cyberspace institutions or online universities will replace traditional educational (34) .......Virtual classrooms will be multi-functional, acting simultaneously as learning platforms, forums and (35).......networks. They will be geared towards promoting the acquisition of knowledge as a life- long endeavour, (36)........occurs through global collaboration. Cyberspace institutions can go a long way towards achieving this as they are able to liberate us from the limitations of time and space. Flexibility of time and location makes e-learning a highly accessible, international resource. (37) .........., prospective students will, regardless of age, background or origin, have unlimited access to both formal and informal learning opportunities. The pursuit of knowledge will consequently become an end in itself and not a means to an end

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Do you think computer games are just for kids? Then you should think again. You might be surprised to learn that the game industry now (1)_________ more money than Hollywood. From 2009 to 2012, the U.S. video game industry increased in size by more than 9 percent - four times the growth rate of the U.S. economy during the same period. (2)___________a family buys a new PC , all they really want to do is to play games. It is hardly surprising that video gaming has become one of the most popular (3)___________of entertainment today. One study even showed that some mental disorder patients who play games requiring physical interaction while standing on a balance board displayed improvement afterwards. A good game is like a good film; it will hold your (4)__________, capture your imagination and play with your emotions. The big (5)__________ , however, is that watching a movie is a passive task, you have to say in how the plot develops or which characters dominate the story. With computer games, you direct the action and that is what makes them so exciting

The National Automobile Show in New York has been one of the top auto shows in the United States since 1900. On November 3 of that year, about 8,000 people looked over the "horseless carriages." It was the opening day and the first opportunity for the automobile industry to show off its wares to a large crowd; however, the black-tie audience treated the occasion more as a social affair than as a sales extravaganza. It was also on the first day of this show that William McKinley became the first U.S. president to ride in a car.
The automobile was not invented in the United States. That distinction belongs to Germany. Nikolaus Otto built the first practical internal-combustion engine there in 1876. Then, German engineer Karl Benz built what are regarded as the first modern automobiles in the mid-1880s. But the United States pioneered the merchandising of the automobile. The auto show proved to be an effective means of getting the public excited about automotive products.

By happenstance, the number of people at the first New York show equaled the entire car population of the United States at that time. In 1900,10 million bicycles and an unknown number of horse-drawn carriages provided the prime means of personal transportation. Only about 4,000 cars were assembled in the United States in 1900, and only a quarter of those were gasoline powered. The rest ran on steam or electricity.

After viewing the cars made by forty car makers, the show's audience favored electric cars because they were quiet. The risk of a boiler explosion turned people away from steamers, and the gasoline-powered cars produced smelly fumes. The Duryea Motor Wagon Company, which launched the American auto industry in 1895, offered a fragrant additive designed to mask the smells of the naphtha that it burned. Many of the 1900 models were cumbersome—the Gasmobile, the Franklin, and the Orient, for example, steered with a tiller like a boat instead of with a steering wheel. None of them was equipped with an automatic starter.

These early model cars were practically handmade and were not very dependable. They were basically toys of the well-to-do. In fact, Woodrow Wilson, then a professor at Princeton University and later President of the United States, predicted that automobiles would cause conflict between the wealthy and the poor. However, among the exhibitors at the 1900 show was a young engineer named Henry Ford. But before the end of the decade, he would revolutionize the automobile industry with his Model T Ford. The Model T, first produced in 1909, featured a standardized design and a streamlined method of production—the assembly line. Its lower costs made it available to the mass market.

Cars at the 1900 show ranged in price from $1,000 to $1,500, or roughly $14,000 to $21,000 in today's prices. By 1913, the Model T was selling for less than $300, and soon the price would drop even further. "I will build cars for the multitudes," Ford said, and he kept his promise.

The phrase "by happenstance" in paragraph 3 is closest in meaning to________.